From owner-svn-doc-head@FreeBSD.ORG Fri Feb 1 17:03:42 2013 Return-Path: Delivered-To: svn-doc-head@freebsd.org Received: from mx1.freebsd.org (mx1.FreeBSD.org [8.8.178.115]) by hub.freebsd.org (Postfix) with ESMTP id 8689DC9B; Fri, 1 Feb 2013 17:03:42 +0000 (UTC) (envelope-from dru@FreeBSD.org) Received: from svn.freebsd.org (svn.freebsd.org [IPv6:2001:1900:2254:2068::e6a:0]) by mx1.freebsd.org (Postfix) with ESMTP id 6CFB01FC; Fri, 1 Feb 2013 17:03:42 +0000 (UTC) Received: from svn.freebsd.org ([127.0.1.70]) by svn.freebsd.org (8.14.5/8.14.5) with ESMTP id r11H3g8P091847; Fri, 1 Feb 2013 17:03:42 GMT (envelope-from dru@svn.freebsd.org) Received: (from dru@localhost) by svn.freebsd.org (8.14.5/8.14.5/Submit) id r11H3gc6091846; Fri, 1 Feb 2013 17:03:42 GMT (envelope-from dru@svn.freebsd.org) Message-Id: <201302011703.r11H3gc6091846@svn.freebsd.org> From: Dru Lavigne Date: Fri, 1 Feb 2013 17:03:42 +0000 (UTC) To: doc-committers@freebsd.org, svn-doc-all@freebsd.org, svn-doc-head@freebsd.org Subject: svn commit: r40856 - head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics X-SVN-Group: doc-head MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8 Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit X-BeenThere: svn-doc-head@freebsd.org X-Mailman-Version: 2.1.14 Precedence: list List-Id: SVN commit messages for the doc tree for head List-Unsubscribe: , List-Archive: List-Post: List-Help: List-Subscribe: , X-List-Received-Date: Fri, 01 Feb 2013 17:03:42 -0000 Author: dru Date: Fri Feb 1 17:03:41 2013 New Revision: 40856 URL: http://svnweb.freebsd.org/changeset/doc/40856 Log: This patch addresses the following: - replaces FreeBSD with &os; - rewording to address "you", redundancy, poor grammar, and verbosity - the console/login prompt was updated to amd64 Approved by: bcr (mentor) Modified: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.xml Modified: head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.xml ============================================================================== --- head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.xml Fri Feb 1 15:57:20 2013 (r40855) +++ head/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/basics/chapter.xml Fri Feb 1 17:03:41 2013 (r40856) @@ -22,24 +22,22 @@ Synopsis - The following chapter will cover the basic commands and - functionality of the FreeBSD operating system. Much of this - material is relevant for any &unix;-like operating system. Feel - free to skim over this chapter if you are familiar with the - material. If you are new to FreeBSD, then you will definitely - want to read through this chapter carefully. + This chapter covers the basic commands and functionality of + the &os; operating system. Much of this material is relevant + for any &unix;-like operating system. New &os; users are + encouraged to read through this chapter carefully. After reading this chapter, you will know: How to use the virtual consoles of - FreeBSD. + &os;. - How &unix; file permissions work along with - understanding file flags in &os;. + How &unix; file permissions and &os; file flags + work. @@ -87,186 +85,128 @@ virtual consoles terminals - FreeBSD can be used in various ways. One of them is typing + &os; can be used in various ways. One of them is typing commands to a text terminal. A lot of the flexibility and power of a &unix; operating system is readily available at your hands - when using FreeBSD this way. This section describes what + when using &os; this way. This section describes what terminals and consoles are, and - how you can use them in FreeBSD. + how you can use them in &os;. The Console console - If you have not configured FreeBSD to automatically start - a graphical environment during startup, the system will - present you with a login prompt after it boots, right after - the startup scripts finish running. You will see something - similar to: - - Additional ABI support:. -Local package initialization:. -Additional TCP options:. - -Fri Sep 20 13:01:06 EEST 2002 + Unless &os; has been configured to automatically start + a graphical environment during startup, the system will boot + into a command line login prompt, as seen in this + example: -FreeBSD/i386 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0) + FreeBSD/amd64 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0) login: - The messages might be a bit different on your system, but - you will see something similar. The last two lines are what - we are interested in right now. The second last line - reads: - - FreeBSD/i386 (pc3.example.org) (ttyv0) - - This line contains some bits of information about the - system you have just booted. You are looking at a - FreeBSD console, running on an Intel or - compatible processor of the x86 architecture - This is what i386 means. Note that - even if you are not running FreeBSD on an Intel 386 CPU, - this is going to be i386. It is not - the type of your processor, but the processor - architecture that is shown here. - . The name of this machine (every &unix; machine - has a name) is pc3.example.org, and you are - now looking at its system console—the - ttyv0 terminal. - - Finally, the last line is always: - - login: - - This is the part where you are supposed to type in your - username to log into FreeBSD. The next section - describes how you can do this. + The first line contains some information about the + system. The amd64 indicates that the + system in this example is running a 64-bit version of &os;. + The hostname is pc3.example.org, and + ttyv0 indicates that this is the + system console. + + The second line is the login prompt. The next section + describes how to log into &os; at this prompt. - Logging into FreeBSD + Logging into &os; - FreeBSD is a multiuser, multiprocessing system. This is + &os; is a multiuser, multiprocessing system. This is the formal description that is usually given to a system that can be used by many different people, who simultaneously run a lot of programs on a single machine. Every multiuser system needs some way to distinguish one - user from the rest. In FreeBSD (and all the + user from the rest. In &os; (and all the &unix;-like operating systems), this is accomplished by requiring that every user must log into the system before being able to run programs. Every user has a unique name (the username) and a personal, - secret key (the password). FreeBSD will ask + secret key (the password). &os; will ask for these two before allowing a user to run any programs. startup scripts - Right after FreeBSD boots and finishes running its startup - scripts - Startup scripts are programs that are run - automatically by FreeBSD when booting. Their main - function is to set things up for everything else to run, - and start any services that you have configured to run in - the background doing useful things. - , it will present you with a prompt and ask for a - valid username: + When a &os; system boots, startup scripts are + automatically executed in order to prepare the system and to + start any services which have been configured to start at + system boot. Once the system finishes running its startup + scripts, it will present a login prompt: login: - For the sake of this example, let us assume that your - username is john. Type - john at this prompt and press - Enter. You should then be presented with a - prompt to enter a password: - - login: john -Password: - - Type in john's password now, and - press Enter. The password is - not echoed! You need not worry about this - right now. Suffice it to say that it is done for security + Type the username that was configured during system installation and + press Enter. Then enter the password + associated with the username and press Enter. + The password is not echoed for security reasons. - If you have typed your password correctly, you should by - now be logged into FreeBSD and ready to try out all the + Once the correct password is input, the message of + the day (MOTD) will be displayed followed + by a command prompt (a #, + $, or % character). You + are now logged into the &os; console and ready to try the available commands. - - You should see the MOTD or message of - the day followed by a command prompt (a #, - $, or % character). - This indicates you have successfully logged into - FreeBSD. - Multiple Consoles + Virtual Consoles - Running &unix; commands in one console is fine, but - FreeBSD can run many programs at once. Having one console - where commands can be typed would be a bit of a waste when an - operating system like FreeBSD can run dozens of programs at - the same time. This is where virtual consoles - can be very helpful. - - FreeBSD can be configured to present you with many - different virtual consoles. You can switch from one of them - to any other virtual console by pressing a couple of keys on - your keyboard. Each console has its own different output - channel, and FreeBSD takes care of properly redirecting - keyboard input and monitor output as you switch from one - virtual console to the next. - - Special key combinations have been reserved by FreeBSD for - switching consoles - A fairly technical and accurate description of all the - details of the FreeBSD console and keyboard drivers can be - found in the manual pages of &man.syscons.4;, - &man.atkbd.4;, &man.vidcontrol.1; and &man.kbdcontrol.1;. - We will not expand on the details here, but the interested - reader can always consult the manual pages for a more - detailed and thorough explanation of how things - work. - . You can use + &os; can be configured to provide many virtual consoles + for inputting commands. Each virtual console has its own + login prompt and output channel, and &os; takes care of + properly redirecting keyboard input and monitor output as you + switch between virtual consoles. + + Special key combinations have been reserved by &os; for + switching consoles. + Refer to &man.syscons.4;, &man.atkbd.4;, + &man.vidcontrol.1; and &man.kbdcontrol.1; for a more + technical description of the &os; console and its keyboard + drivers.. Use AltF1, AltF2, through AltF8 - to switch to a different virtual console in FreeBSD. + to switch to a different virtual console in &os;. - As you are switching from one console to the next, FreeBSD - takes care of saving and restoring the screen output. The - result is an illusion of having multiple - virtual screens and keyboards that you can use - to type commands for FreeBSD to run. The programs that you - launch on one virtual console do not stop running when that - console is not visible. They continue running when you have - switched to a different virtual console. + When switching from one console to the next, &os; takes + care of saving and restoring the screen output. The result is + an illusion of having multiple + virtual screens and keyboards that can be used + to type commands for &os; to run. The programs that are + launched in one virtual console do not stop running when that + console is not visible because the user has switched to a + different virtual console. The <filename>/etc/ttys</filename> File - The default configuration of FreeBSD will start up with - eight virtual consoles. This is not a hardwired setting - though, and you can easily customize your installation to boot - with more or fewer virtual consoles. The number and settings - of the virtual consoles are configured in the - /etc/ttys file. - - You can use the /etc/ttys file to - configure the virtual consoles of FreeBSD. Each uncommented - line in this file (lines that do not start with a - # character) contains settings for a single - terminal or virtual console. The default version of this file - that ships with FreeBSD configures nine virtual consoles, and - enables eight of them. They are the lines that start with - ttyv: + By default, &os; is configured to start eight virtual + consoles. The configuration can be customized to start + more or fewer virtual consoles. To change the number of and + the settings of the virtual consoles, edit + /etc/ttys. + + Each uncommented line in /etc/ttys + (lines that do not start with a # + character) contains settings for a single terminal or virtual + console. The default version configures nine virtual + consoles, and enables eight of them. They are the lines that + start with ttyv: - # name getty type status comments + # name getty type status comments # ttyv0 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" cons25 on secure # Virtual terminals @@ -280,73 +220,69 @@ ttyv7 "/usr/libexec/getty Pc" ttyv8 "/usr/X11R6/bin/xdm -nodaemon" xterm off secure For a detailed description of every column in this file - and all the options you can use to set things up for the - virtual consoles, consult the &man.ttys.5; manual page. + and the available options for the virtual consoles, refer to + &man.ttys.5;. Single User Mode Console - A detailed description of what - single user mode is can be found in - . It is worth noting that - there is only one console when you are running FreeBSD in - single user mode. There are no virtual consoles available. - The settings of the single user mode console can also be found - in the /etc/ttys file. Look for the line - that starts with console: + A detailed description of single user mode + can be found here. + There is only one console when &os; is in single user mode as + no other virtual consoles are available in this mode. The + settings for single user mode are found in this section of + /etc/ttys: - # name getty type status comments + # name getty type status comments # # If console is marked "insecure", then init will ask for the root password # when going to single-user mode. -console none unknown off secure +console none unknown off secure As the comments above the console - line indicate, you can edit this line and change - secure to insecure. - If you do that, when FreeBSD boots into single user mode, it - will still ask for the root - password. + line indicate, editing secure to + insecure will prompt for the + root password when booting into single + user mode. The default setting enters single user mode + without prompting for a password. - Be careful when changing this to + Be careful when changing this setting to insecure. If you ever forget the root password, booting into - single user mode is a bit involved. It is still possible, - but it might be a bit hard for someone who is not very - comfortable with the FreeBSD booting process and the - programs involved. + single user mode is still possible, but may be difficult for + someone who is not comfortable with the &os; booting + process. Changing Console Video Modes - The FreeBSD console default video mode may be adjusted to - 1024x768, 1280x1024, or any other size supported by your + The &os; console default video mode may be adjusted to + 1024x768, 1280x1024, or any other size supported by the graphics chip and monitor. To use a different video mode load the VESA module: &prompt.root; kldload vesa - Then determine what video modes are supported - by your hardware by using &man.vidcontrol.1;. To - get a list of supported video modes issue the - following: + To determine which video modes are supported by the + hardware, use &man.vidcontrol.1;. To get a list of supported + video modes issue the following: &prompt.root; vidcontrol -i mode - The output of this command is a list of video modes that - are supported by your hardware. You can then choose to use a - new video mode by passing it to &man.vidcontrol.1; in a - root console: + The output of this command lists the video modes that + are supported by the hardware. To select a new video mode, + specify the mode using &man.vidcontrol.1; as the + root user: &prompt.root; vidcontrol MODE_279 If the new video mode is acceptable, it can be permanently - set on boot by setting it in the - /etc/rc.conf file: + set on boot by adding it to + /etc/rc.conf: allscreens_flags="MODE_279" @@ -357,13 +293,13 @@ console none UNIX - FreeBSD, being a direct descendant of BSD &unix;, is based + &os;, being a direct descendant of BSD &unix;, is based on several key &unix; concepts. The first and most pronounced - is that FreeBSD is a multi-user operating system. The system - can handle several users all working simultaneously on - completely unrelated tasks. The system is responsible for - properly sharing and managing requests for hardware devices, - peripherals, memory, and CPU time fairly to each user. + is that &os; is a multi-user operating system that can handle + several users working simultaneously on completely unrelated + tasks. The system is responsible for properly sharing and + managing requests for hardware devices, peripherals, memory, and + CPU time fairly to each user. Because the system is capable of supporting multiple users, everything the system manages has a set of permissions governing @@ -443,69 +379,59 @@ console none directories - You can use the command line - argument to &man.ls.1; to view a long directory listing that - includes a column with information about a file's permissions - for the owner, group, and everyone else. For example, a - ls -l in an arbitrary directory may - show: + Use the argument to &man.ls.1; to view a + long directory listing that includes a column of information + about a file's permissions for the owner, group, and everyone + else. For example, a ls -l in an arbitrary + directory may show: &prompt.user; ls -l total 530 -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 myfile -rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 512 Sep 5 12:31 otherfile --rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7680 Sep 5 12:31 email.txt -... +-rw-r--r-- 1 root wheel 7680 Sep 5 12:31 email.txt - Here is how the first column of ls -l is - broken up: - - -rw-r--r-- - - The first (leftmost) character tells if this file is a - regular file, a directory, a special character device, a socket, - or any other special pseudo-file device. In this case, the - - indicates a regular file. The next three - characters, rw- in this example, give the - permissions for the owner of the file. The next three - characters, r--, give the permissions for the - group that the file belongs to. The final three characters, - r--, give the permissions for the rest of the - world. A dash means that the permission is turned off. In the - case of this file, the permissions are set so the owner can read - and write to the file, the group can read the file, and the rest - of the world can only read the file. According to the table - above, the permissions for this file would be - 644, where each digit represents the three - parts of the file's permission. - - This is all well and good, but how does the system control - permissions on devices? FreeBSD actually treats most hardware - devices as a file that programs can open, read, and write data - to just like any other file. These special device files are - stored on the /dev directory. + The first (leftmost) character in the first column indicates + whether this file is a regular file, a directory, a special + character device, a socket, or any other special pseudo-file + device. In this example, the - indicates a + regular file. The next three characters, rw- + in this example, give the permissions for the owner of the file. + The next three characters, r--, give the + permissions for the group that the file belongs to. The final + three characters, r--, give the permissions + for the rest of the world. A dash means that the permission is + turned off. In this example, the permissions are set so the + owner can read and write to the file, the group can read the + file, and the rest of the world can only read the file. + According to the table above, the permissions for this file + would be 644, where each digit represents the + three parts of the file's permission. + + How does the system control permissions on devices? &os; + treats most hardware devices as a file that programs can open, + read, and write data to. These special device files are + stored in /dev/. Directories are also treated as files. They have read, write, and execute permissions. The executable bit for a directory has a slightly different meaning than that of files. - When a directory is marked executable, it means it can be - traversed into, that is, it is possible to cd - (change directory) into it. This also means that within the - directory it is possible to access files whose names are known - (subject, of course, to the permissions on the files - themselves). - - In particular, in order to perform a directory listing, read - permission must be set on the directory, whilst to delete a file - that one knows the name of, it is necessary to have write + When a directory is marked executable, it means it is possible + to change into that directory using + cd. This also means that it is + possible to access the files within that directory, subject to + the permissions on the files themselves. + + In order to perform a directory listing, the read permission + must be set on the directory. In order to delete a file that + one knows the name of, it is necessary to have write and execute permissions to the directory containing the file. There are more permission bits, but they are primarily used in special circumstances such as setuid binaries and sticky - directories. If you want more information on file permissions - and how to set them, be sure to look at the &man.chmod.1; manual - page. + directories. For more information on file permissions and how + to set them, refer to &man.chmod.1;. @@ -525,11 +451,11 @@ total 530 symbolic - Symbolic permissions, sometimes referred to as symbolic - expressions, use characters in place of octal values to assign - permissions to files or directories. Symbolic expressions use - the syntax of (who) (action) (permissions), where the - following values are available: + Symbolic permissions use characters instead of octal + values to assign permissions to files or directories. + Symbolic permissions use the syntax of (who) (action) + (permissions), where the following values are + available: @@ -617,18 +543,18 @@ total 530 - These values are used with the &man.chmod.1; command - just like before, but with letters. For an example, you could - use the following command to block other users from accessing + These values are used with &man.chmod.1;, but with + letters instead of numbers. For example, the following + command would block other users from accessing FILE: &prompt.user; chmod go= FILE A comma separated list can be provided when more than one - set of changes to a file must be made. For example the - following command will remove the group and + set of changes to a file must be made. For example, the + following command removes the group and world write permission on - FILE, then it adds the execute + FILE, and adds the execute permissions for everyone: &prompt.user; chmod go-w,a+x FILE @@ -653,43 +579,37 @@ total 530 &os; File Flags - In addition to file permissions discussed previously, &os; - supports the use of file flags. These flags add - an additional level of security and control over files, but - not directories. - - These file flags add an additional level of control over - files, helping to ensure that in some cases not even the - root can remove or alter files. - - File flags are altered by using the &man.chflags.1; - utility, using a simple interface. For example, to enable the - system undeletable flag on the file + In addition to file permissions, &os; supports the use of + file flags. These flags add an additional + level of security and control over files, but not + directories. With file flags, even + root can be prevented from removing or + altering files. + + File flags are modified using &man.chflags.1;. For + example, to enable the system undeletable flag on the file file1, issue the following command: &prompt.root; chflags sunlink file1 - And to disable the system undeletable flag, - issue the previous command with no in - front of the . Observe: + To disable the system undeletable flag, put a + no in front of the + : &prompt.root; chflags nosunlink file1 - To view the flags of this file, use the &man.ls.1; command - with the flags: + To view the flags of a file, use with + &man.ls.1;: &prompt.root; ls -lo file1 - The output should look like the following: - -rw-r--r-- 1 trhodes trhodes sunlnk 0 Mar 1 05:54 file1 - Several flags may only added or removed to files by the + Several file flags may only added or removed by the root user. In other cases, the file - owner may set these flags. It is recommended that - administrators read over the &man.chflags.1; and - &man.chflags.2; manual pages for more information. + owner may set its file flags. Refer to &man.chflags.1; and + &man.chflags.2; for more information. @@ -709,56 +629,54 @@ total 530 Other than the permissions already discussed, there are three other specific settings that all administrators should know about. They are the setuid, - setgid and sticky + setgid, and sticky permissions. These settings are important for some &unix; operations as they provide functionality not normally granted to normal users. To understand them, the difference between the real - user ID and effective user ID must also be noted. + user ID and effective user ID must be noted. The real user ID is the UID who owns or starts the process. The effective UID - is the user ID the process runs as. As an example, the - &man.passwd.1; utility runs with the real user ID as the - user changing their password; however, to manipulate the - password database, it runs as the effective ID of the - root user. This is what allows normal - users to change their passwords without seeing a + is the user ID the process runs as. As an example, + &man.passwd.1; runs with the real user ID when a user changes + their password. However, in order to update the password + database, the command runs as the effective ID of the + root user. This allows users to change + their passwords without seeing a Permission Denied error. - - The nosuid &man.mount.8; option will - cause these binaries to silently fail. That is, they will - fail to execute without ever alerting the user. That option - is also not completely reliable as a - nosuid wrapper may be able to circumvent - it; according to the &man.mount.8; manual page. - - The setuid permission may be set by prefixing a permission set with the number four (4) as shown in the following example: &prompt.root; chmod 4755 suidexample.sh - The permissions on the + The permissions on suidexample.sh - file should now look like the following: + now look like the following: -rwsr-xr-x 1 trhodes trhodes 63 Aug 29 06:36 suidexample.sh - It should be noticeable from this example that an - s is now part of the permission set - designated for the file owner, replacing the executable - bit. This allows utilities which need elevated permissions, - such as passwd. + Note that a s is now part of the + permission set designated for the file owner, replacing the + executable bit. This allows utilities which need elevated + permissions, such as passwd. + + + The nosuid &man.mount.8; option will + cause such binaries to silently fail without alerting + the user. That option is not completely reliable as a + nosuid wrapper may be able to circumvent + it. + To view this in real time, open two terminals. On one, start the passwd process as a normal user. While it waits for a new password, check the process - table and look at the user information of the - passwd command. + table and look at the user information for + passwd: In terminal A: @@ -779,17 +697,17 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 The setgid permission performs the same function as the setuid permission; except that it alters the group settings. When an application - or utility is ran with this setting, it will be granted the - permissions based on the group that owns the file, not - the user who started the process. + or utility executes with this setting, it will be granted the + permissions based on the group that owns the file, not the + user who started the process. To set the setgid permission on a - file, provide the chmod command with a - leading two (2) as in the following example: + file, provide chmod with a leading two + (2): &prompt.root; chmod 2755 sgidexample.sh - The new setting may be viewed as before, notice the + In the following listing, notice that the s is now in the field designated for the group permission settings: @@ -803,33 +721,29 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 &man.setuid.2; system calls. - The first two special permission bits we discussed - (the setuid and setgid - permission bits) may lower system security, by allowing for - elevated permissions. There is a third special permission bit - that can strengthen the security of a system: the - sticky bit. - - The sticky bit, when set on a - directory, allows file deletion only by the file owner. This - permission set is useful to prevent file deletion in public - directories, such as - /tmp, by users who do - not own the file. To utilize this permission, prefix the - permission with a one (1). For example: + The setuid and + setgid permission bits may lower system + security, by allowing for elevated permissions. The third + special permission, the sticky bit, can + strengthen the security of a system. + + When the sticky bit is set on a + directory, it allows file deletion only by the file owner. + This is useful to prevent file deletion in public directories, + such as /tmp, by users + who do not own the file. To utilize this permission, prefix + the permission set with a one (1): &prompt.root; chmod 1777 /tmp - Now, it is possible to see the effect by using the - ls command: + The sticky bit permission will display + as a t at the very end of the permission + set: &prompt.root; ls -al / | grep tmp drwxrwxrwt 10 root wheel 512 Aug 31 01:49 tmp - The sticky bit permission is - distinguishable from the t at the very - end of the set. @@ -838,35 +752,35 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 directory hierarchy - The FreeBSD directory hierarchy is fundamental to obtaining + The &os; directory hierarchy is fundamental to obtaining an overall understanding of the system. The most important - concept to grasp is that of the root directory, - /. This directory is the first one mounted at - boot time and it contains the base system necessary to prepare - the operating system for multi-user operation. The root - directory also contains mount points for other file systems that - are mounted during the transition to multi-user - operation. + directory is root or, /. This directory is the + first one mounted at boot time and it contains the base system + necessary to prepare the operating system for multi-user + operation. The root directory also contains mount points for + other file systems that are mounted during the transition to + multi-user operation. A mount point is a directory where additional file systems can be grafted onto a parent file system (usually the root file - system). This is further described in - . Standard mount points - include /usr, /var, - /tmp, /mnt, and - /cdrom. These directories are usually - referenced to entries in the file - /etc/fstab. - /etc/fstab is a table of various file - systems and mount points for reference by the system. Most of - the file systems in /etc/fstab are mounted - automatically at boot time from the script &man.rc.8; unless - they contain the option. Details can be - found in . + system). This is further described in . Standard mount points + include /usr/, + /var/, + /tmp/, + /mnt/, and + /cdrom/. These + directories are usually referenced to entries in + /etc/fstab. This file is a table of + various file systems and mount points and is read by the system. + Most of the file systems in /etc/fstab are + mounted automatically at boot time from the script &man.rc.8; + unless their entry includes . Details + can be found in . A complete description of the file system hierarchy is - available in &man.hier.7;. For now, a brief overview of the - most common directories will suffice. + available in &man.hier.7;. The following table provides a brief + overview of the most common directories. @@ -900,14 +814,15 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 /boot/defaults/ - Default bootstrapping configuration files; see - &man.loader.conf.5;. + Default boot configuration files. Refer to + &man.loader.conf.5; for details. /dev/ - Device nodes; see &man.intro.4;. + Device nodes. Refer to &man.intro.4; for + details. @@ -919,8 +834,8 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 /etc/defaults/ - Default system configuration files; see - &man.rc.8;. + Default system configuration files. Refer to + &man.rc.8; for details. @@ -933,22 +848,23 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 /etc/namedb/ - named configuration files; see - &man.named.8;. + named configuration files. + Refer to &man.named.8; for details. /etc/periodic/ - Scripts that are run daily, weekly, and monthly, - via &man.cron.8;; see &man.periodic.8;. + Scripts that run daily, weekly, and monthly, + via &man.cron.8;. Refer to &man.periodic.8; for + details. /etc/ppp/ - ppp configuration files; see - &man.ppp.8;. + ppp configuration files as + described in &man.ppp.8;. @@ -961,15 +877,15 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 /proc/ - Process file system; see &man.procfs.5;, - &man.mount.procfs.8;. + Process file system. Refer to &man.procfs.5;, + &man.mount.procfs.8; for details. /rescue/ Statically linked programs for emergency - recovery; see &man.rescue.8;. + recovery as described in &man.rescue.8;. @@ -990,15 +906,14 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 /tmp/ - Temporary files. The contents of - /tmp are - usually NOT preserved across a system reboot. A - memory-based file system is often mounted at - /tmp. This can - be automated using the tmpmfs-related variables of - &man.rc.conf.5; (or with an entry in - /etc/fstab; see - &man.mdmfs.8;). + Temporary files which are usually + not preserved across a system + reboot. A memory-based file system is often mounted + at /tmp. This + can be automated using the tmpmfs-related variables of + &man.rc.conf.5; or with an entry in + /etc/fstab; refer to + &man.mdmfs.8; for details. @@ -1037,15 +952,15 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 /usr/libexec/ - System daemons & system utilities (executed - by other programs). + System daemons and system utilities executed + by other programs. /usr/local/ - Local executables, libraries, etc. Also used as - the default destination for the FreeBSD ports + Local executables and libraries. Also used as + the default destination for the &os; ports framework. Within /usr/local, the general layout sketched out by &man.hier.7; for /usr should be used. Exceptions @@ -1067,14 +982,14 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 /usr/ports/ - The FreeBSD Ports Collection (optional). + The &os; Ports Collection (optional). /usr/sbin/ - System daemons & system utilities (executed - by users). + System daemons and system utilities executed + by users. @@ -1091,22 +1006,15 @@ root 5211 0.0 0.2 3620 1724 2 /usr/X11R6/ - X11R6 distribution executables, libraries, etc - (optional). - - - - /var/ Multi-purpose log, temporary, transient, and spool files. A memory-based file system is sometimes - mounted at - /var. This can - be automated using the varmfs-related variables of - &man.rc.conf.5; (or with an entry in - /etc/fstab; see *** DIFF OUTPUT TRUNCATED AT 1000 LINES ***